Educational Indicators
ERIC Identifier: ED457536
Publication Date: 2001-08-00
Author: Lashway, Larry
Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management Eugene OR.
"The great tragedy of science: the slaying of a beautiful theory by an ugly fact." That wry
observation by the great British scientist T. H. Huxley applies equally well to educational
practice. Like all professionals, educators use informal theories and assumptions to
guide their actions, yet often fail to evaluate these beliefs (Donald Schon 1987).
The hectic pace of school life makes it difficult for teachers and administrators to step
back and objectively assess the validity of their operating assumptions. In addition,
educators tend to judge success anecdotally rather than through formal assessment. A
small sign of progress from a recalcitrant student may outweigh months of low
performance. Although these victories may be highly satisfying in human terms, today's
accountability environment demands that educators collect and analyze objective data
before making decisions.
Schools collect a large amount of data, but much of it is simply filed and forgotten
(Theodore Creighton 2001). In recent years, policymakers and school officials have
begun to recognize that these numbers can be turned into "performance indicators" that
not only satisfy the demands of accountability but serve as a tool for school
improvement.
This Digest examines the nature and purpose of educational-indicator systems, and it
discusses the design of report cards by which schools can inform the public of their
performance.
WHAT ARE EDUCATIONAL INDICATORS?
An indicator is any statistic that casts light on the conditions and performance of
schools. The recent push for accountability has emphasized test scores, but Linda
Darling-Hammond and Carol Ascher (1991) have suggested that a comprehensive
indicator system should provide a wide range of information.
Some indicators, such as teacher turnover or student mobility, can signal problems that
need attention. Some indicators can provide information geared to current policy issues;
for example, data on course-taking will help policymakers who want students to take
more academic courses.
Other indicators focus on context, such as student demographics, teacher workload,
financial resources, and teacher qualifications. Such information can help schools
interpret the sometimes ambiguous statistics that come from test scores and other
outcome measures. Although contextual factors do not provide the bottom-line measure
of success that policymakers seek, they do have an impact on student learning and can
help explain a school's performance.
Currently, forty-five states require schools or districts to issue "school report cards" that
include a wide range of information. Twenty-seven states also provide comparative
ratings of schools (Ulrich Boser 2001). Alaska, for example, plans a four-grade ranking:
"distinguished," "successful," "deficient," and "in crisis."
Given the wide range of data available, policymakers and school leaders should choose
their key indicators by asking three questions: Why is this information important? How
much effort is required to track the data? How will we use this information when we get
it? (Larry Lashway 2001).
HOW DO INDICATORS SUPPORT SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT?
Indicators play a central role in today's accountability systems by focusing attention on
results, especially the school's performance on standards-driven assessments.
Policymakers believe that publicity has a motivational effect:
Ratings raise awareness, provide focus and energize schools and communities to work
to improve student achievement. At their best, ratings can provide momentum, measure
schools' progress and show parents, the public and policymakers that schools can
improve. (Southern Regional Education Board 2000).
This attention-getting feature is even stronger when indicators are the trigger for
incentives, giving practitioners personal as well as professional reasons to focus on the
target.
However, attention does not always lead to positive action. Educators may attempt to
explain away poor results rather than act on them, while parents and community
members often report that they are uncertain how to lobby for improvement. Teachers in
high-need schools, struggling to educate large numbers of under prepared students with
limited resources, may simply be demoralized by repeated public embarrassment
(Lashway).
The more lasting value of indicators is their role in the school-improvement process.
Used thoughtfully and systematically, they allow schools to take charge of their own
assessment by identifying strengths and weaknesses and pinpointing which
improvement strategies are working (Karen Levesque and colleagues 1998). Ideally, a
school's indicator system will not be merely a grudging reaction to state mandates but
will reflect a school's commitment to "an ethic of continuous improvement" (Annenberg
Institute for School Reform). Used this way, indicators are merely an extension of what
thoughtful professionals always try to do.
HOW ARE INDICATORS MISUSED?
Although indicators hold out the promise of improved decision-making, they can easily
lead schools astray.
- One danger is to collect data indiscriminately. This not only costs
effort and money, it swamps decision-makers in a sea of numbers that make it difficult
to distinguish the significant from the trivial (Lashway).
- Raw numbers never speak for themselves, but require careful interpretation
(Darling-Hammond and Ascher). For example, a rise in fourth-grade scores may be due
to improved instruction, or it may be due to differences in capability between last year's
group and this year's group.
- An over reliance on data may have unintended but perverse effects, particularly
when those data are high-stakes test scores. Faced with the need to get the numbers
up, educators may be tempted to replace curricular content with test-prep activities; may
exclude special-education students from testing; or may even cheat. Recently, some
school leaders have reported difficulty staffing fourth-grade classrooms because
teachers don't want the pressure of the testing often done at this level (Abby
Goodnough 2001).
Darling-Hammond and Ascher note that indicators by themselves do not constitute an
accountability system; they merely provide information for the system. No matter how
sophisticated the data collected, they will never substitute for informed human
judgment.
HOW IS EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE REPORTED TO THE PUBLIC?
In many cases, states mandate the content and form of "school report cards," often
aiming at a scorecard method that permits comparisons. Some districts have chosen to
go beyond these state-mandated scorecards by creating and publicizing their own local
report cards, which they believe portray their work with more accuracy.
Designing effective report cards poses a considerable challenge that goes beyond
transcribing and sharing data. What parents and taxpayers want from report cards does
not always match what policymakers have in mind. According to some surveys, the
information most desired by parents and other citizens is data on school safety and
teacher qualifications, followed by average class size, graduation rates, and dropout
rates. Student-performance data are considered important, but not the highest priority
(Richard Brown 1999).
Report cards need a clear sense of purpose. Why have these indicators been chosen?
How do they relate to the school's goals? Providing a context for the data is vital; the
numbers alone have little meaning for the public. Instead, they should be woven into a
narrative that explains what the school is trying to accomplish, what progress has been
made, and what steps will be taken next (Lashway).
Presentation and dissemination of the report are another key. Length, format,
readability, and appearance will determine readership. Beyond relying on the usual
dissemination through local papers and district newsletters, schools can get further
mileage from the report by using it as the basis for "accountability dialogues" with
stakeholders (Kate Jamentz 1998).
HOW DO SCHOOLS BECOME DATA DRIVEN?
Tracking and reporting selected indicators will satisfy the minimum demands of
accountability, but significant improvement will come only when the data are used
systematically and intelligently. For example, a Philadelphia middle school-serving
students with high poverty, low academic performance, and frequent behavior
problems-created a behavior database that eventually revealed many students were
coming to school simply not knowing how to behave properly. After increasing
supervision, the school was able to reduce inappropriate behavior by 95 percent
(Lorraine Keeney 1998).
The Annenberg Institute for School Reform has outlined a six-part "inquiry cycle" that
puts indicators to work. The first step is to identify the desired outcomes, which in turn
generates questions about how well students are accomplishing those objectives (step
two). Step three consists of selecting and organizing data that will help answer the
school's questions. The fourth step is to interpret the collected data, followed by
appropriate actions (step five). Finally, assessment of those actions marks the
beginning of the next inquiry cycle (Keeney).
Similar processes are recommended by Levesque and colleagues as well as Penny
Noyce and colleagues (2000). Underlying all three strategies is a willingness to face the
fact that reality (as revealed in the data) falls short of the ideal (as embodied in the
mission and goals). Only by confronting that reality can schools move toward their ideal.
This publication was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and
Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, under contract No. ED-99-C0-0011. The
ideas and opinions expressed in this Digest do not necessarily reflect the positions or
policies of OERI, ED, or the Clearinghouse. This Digest is in the public domain and may
be freely reproduced.
RESOURCES
Annenberg Institute for School Reform. "A Framework for Accountability." No Date.
http://www.aisr.brown.edu/accountability/framework/pgone.html
Brown, Richard. "Creating School Accountability Reports." School Administrator 56, 10
(November 1999): 12-14, 16-17. EJ 597 033.
Boser, Ulrich. "Pressure Without Support." Quality Counts 2001: A Better Balance:
Standards, Tests, and the Tools To Succeed. Education Week (January 10, 2001).
Creighton, Theodore B. "Data Analysis in Administrators' Hands: An Oxymoron?"
School Administrator 58, 4 (April 2001): 6-11.
Darling-Hammond, Linda, and Carol Ascher. Creating Accountability in Big City School
Systems. Urban Diversity Series # 102. New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban
Education, 1991. 48 pages. ED 334 339.
Goodnough, Abby. "Strain of Fourth-Grade Tests Drives Off Veteran Teachers." New
York Times, June 14, 2001.
Jamentz, Kate. "Authentic Accountability." Thrust for Educational Leadership (January
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Keeney, Lorraine. Using Data for School Improvement. Providence, Rhode Island:
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Lashway, Larry. The New Standards and Accountability: Will Rewards and Sanctions Motivate America's Schools to Peak Performance? Eugene, Oregon: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management, University of Oregon, 2001.
Levesque, Karen; Denise Bradby; Kristi Rossi; and Peter Teitelbaum. At Your Fingertips: Using Everyday Data To Improve Schools. Berkeley, California: MPR Associates, 1998. 297 pages. ED 419 571.
Noyce, Penny; David Perda; and Rob Traver. "Creating Data-Driven Schools."
Educational Leadership 57, 5 (February 2000): 52-56. EJ 609 608.
Schon, Donald. Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987. 365 pages. ED 295 518.
Southern Regional Education Board. Getting Results with Accountability: Rating
Schools, Assisting Schools, Improving Schools. A Fresh Look at School Accountability.
Atlanta: Southern Regional Education Board, 2000.
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